Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Usinglme4. Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S.Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 58( 2), 123– 130. A meta-analysis of math performance in Turner syndrome. The organizational–activational hypothesis as the foundation for a unified theory of sexual differentiation of all mammalian tissues. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5( 9), 701– 708. Taken together, these results suggest the involvement of both direct and indirect effects of X-chromosome haploinsufficiency on brain development in TS. Surface area alterations were predominant by age 8, while maturational differences in thickness emerged by age 10 or later. Regionally, the TS group exhibited decreased volume and surface area in the pericalcarine, postcentral, and parietal regions relative to typically developing girls, as well as larger volume in the caudate, amygdala, and temporal lobe regions and increased thickness in parietal and temporal regions. Further, girls with TS demonstrated smaller total surface area and larger average cortical thickness overall. Longitudinal analyses revealed that, whereas typically developing girls exhibited normative declines in gray matter structure during adolescence, this pattern was reduced or inverted in TS.
Surface-based analyses of cortical gray matter volume, thickness, and surface area were conducted to examine the direct effects of X-monosomy present before pubertal onset and indirect hormonal effects of estrogen deficiency/X-monosomy emerging after pubertal onset. Brain structure was assessed in 61 girls with TS (11.3 ± 2.8 years) and 55 typically developing girls (10.8 ± 2.3 years) for up to 4 timepoints. Moreover, the longitudinal direct (i.e., genetic) and indirect (i.e., hormonal) effects of X-monosomy on the brain are unclear. However, few studies have examined TS-associated alterations in the development of cortical gray matter volume and the two components that comprise this measure-surface area and thickness.
Turner syndrome (TS) is a common sex chromosome aneuploidy in females associated with various physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional phenotypes.
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